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Paper 2
/
Analytical Techniques
Contents
Mass spectra: read mass and abundance
Contents
All chapters
Chemistry · 9701
Paper 2
Chapter 23 · Analytical Techniques
Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectra: read mass and abundance
01
Atomic Structure
Particles & Isotopes
1
Atoms, Isotopes & Ions
Electron Arrangement
2
Shells, Sub-shells & Orbitals
Electron Configurations & Ions
Size & Nuclear Attraction
3
Atomic & Ionic Radii
First Ionisation Energy & Trends
Successive Ionisation Energy
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
02
Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry
Relative Mass
1
Relative Masses & Isotope Averages
Amount of Substance
1
Moles, Mass & Particle Counts
Formulas & Equations
2
Ionic Formulas & Charges
Balanced & Ionic Equations
Formula from Data
2
Empirical & Molecular Formulas
Hydrates & Water of Crystallisation
Reacting Amounts
3
Reaction Amounts, Limiting Reagents & Yield
Solution Concentration, Dilution & Titration
Gas Volumes & Reaction Ratios
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
03
Chemical Bonding
Electron Pairs & Ions
4
Ionic Bonding & Electron Transfer
Covalent Bonds & Electron Pairs
Electron Counts & Octet Exceptions
Coordinate Bonds
Shapes & Orbitals
2
Molecular Shapes & Bond Angles
Sigma, Pi & Hybrid Orbitals
Attraction & Properties
4
Bond Length & Bond Energy
Electronegativity & Molecular Polarity
Metallic Bonding & Charge Carriers
Intermolecular Forces & Water
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
04
States of Matter
Gases & Measurements
3
Gas pressure and real gases
Ideal-gas equation and units
Relative molecular mass from gas data
Crystals & Properties
4
Ionic crystals and their properties
Molecular crystals and their properties
Diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide
Metallic crystals and their properties
Structure Decisions
1
Deduce structure from properties
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
05
Chemical Energetics
Energy Changes
2
Heat Flow & Reaction Profiles
Standard Enthalpy Changes
Measuring Energy
1
Calorimetry & Enthalpy
Routes & Bonds
2
Hess's Law & Cycles
Bond Energies
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
06
Electrochemistry
Redox & Electrons
1
Electron transfer and redox
Oxidation Numbers
2
Oxidation numbers in compounds and ions
Roman numerals and chemical formulas
Redox Decisions
1
Redox changes and reaction roles
Equation Balancing
1
Balance redox equations
Disproportionation
1
Disproportionation and conditions
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
07
Equilibria
Equilibrium conditions
3
Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
Concentration changes and Le Chatelier’s principle
Pressure, temperature and catalysts
Equilibrium calculations
3
Kc expressions and units
Equilibrium amounts and Kc calculations
Partial pressures and Kp
Industrial equilibria
1
Haber and Contact process conditions
Acid–base equilibria
2
Acids, bases and proton transfer
Strong, weak, concentrated and dilute
Titration curves
2
Titration curves and equivalence
Choose a titration indicator
Chapter Summary
1
Equilibria: chapter summary
08
Reaction Kinetics
Measuring Rate
3
Reaction rate and measurements
Average rates and tangent gradients
Gas volume to molar reaction rate
Collision Theory
2
Collision theory and activation energy
Concentration, pressure and collision frequency
Energy Distribution
2
Boltzmann distribution and energy threshold
Temperature and effective collisions
Catalysis
1
Catalysts and alternative pathways
Chapter Summary
1
Reaction kinetics: chapter summary
09
The Periodic Table and Periodicity
Physical Properties
3
Period 3: atoms and ions
Period 3: melting points
Period 3: electrical conductivity
Structure Evidence
1
Period 3: compound structures
Chemical Reactions
3
Period 3: reactions with oxygen
Period 3: reactions with chlorine
Sodium and magnesium with water
Oxidation Numbers
1
Period 3: oxidation numbers
Oxides and Hydroxides
3
Period 3: oxides and water
Period 3: oxide neutralisation
Period 3: amphoteric oxides and hydroxides
Chloride Reactions
2
Period 3: chlorides and water
Silicon tetrachloride and water
Using Evidence
1
Periodicity: unknown elements
Chapter Summary
1
Periodicity: chapter summary
10
Group 2
Group 2 Elements
2
Group 2: electrons and reactivity
Group 2: metal reactions
Group 2 Compounds
4
Group 2: oxides and hydroxides
Group 2: solubility trends
Group 2: carbonates and heat
Group 2: nitrate decomposition
Chapter Summary
1
Group 2: chapter summary
11
Group 17
Halogen Properties
1
Halogens: states, forces and bonds
Halogen Reactions
2
Halogens: oxidising strength and displacement
Hydrogen halides and thermal stability
Halide Ions
2
Halide tests: silver nitrate and ammonia
Halides and concentrated sulfuric acid
Chlorine Reactions
2
Chlorine with alkali
Chlorine water and disinfection
Chapter Summary
1
Group 17: chapter summary
12
Nitrogen and Sulfur
Nitrogen Compounds
3
Nitrogen: triple bond and low reactivity
Ammonia basicity and ammonium structure
Ammonium salts and the ammonia test
Nitrogen Oxides
2
Nitrogen oxides: sources and catalytic converters
Nitrogen oxides: acid rain and smog
Chapter Summary
1
Nitrogen and sulfur: chapter summary
13
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Organic Foundations
10
Organic formulas and skeletal counting
Recognise functional groups
Homologous series and general formulas
Name organic structures
Carbon shapes, σ and π bonds
Structural isomers
Geometrical isomers
Chiral centres and optical isomers
Bond fission and electron arrows
Recognise organic reaction types
Chapter Summary
1
Organic introduction: chapter summary
14
Organic Reaction Routes
Read Organic Structures
1
Read Carbon Chains & Groups
Electron Movement
1
Alkene Addition & Curly Arrows
Route Decisions
1
Cyanide or Ammonia?
Chapter Summary
1
Chapter Summary
15
Hydrocarbons
Alkanes
5
Alkanes: bonds and low reactivity
Alkanes: hydrogenation and cracking
Hydrocarbons: combustion and pollutants
Alkanes: radical substitution
Exhaust pollutants and catalytic converters
Alkenes
6
Alkenes: elimination and dehydration
Alkenes: addition reagents and bromine water
Alkenes: electrophilic addition mechanisms
Alkenes: carbocations and the major product
Alkenes: diols and oxidative cleavage
Alkenes: addition polymers
Chapter Summary
1
Hydrocarbons: chapter summary
16
Halogen Compounds
Halogenoalkanes
2
Halogenoalkanes: primary, secondary and tertiary
Halogenoalkanes: production routes
Substitution and Elimination
4
Halogenoalkanes: hydrolysis to alcohols
Halogenoalkanes: cyanide and chain extension
Halogenoalkanes: ammonia to amines
Halogenoalkanes: elimination to alkenes
Nucleophilic Substitution
2
Halogenoalkanes: the SN2 mechanism
Halogenoalkanes: the SN1 mechanism
Halogen Identification and Reactivity
2
Halogenoalkanes: silver nitrate identification
Halogenoalkanes: bond strength and hydrolysis rate
Chapter Summary
1
Halogen compounds: chapter summary
17
Hydroxy Compounds
Alcohols
13
Alcohols: primary, secondary and tertiary
Alcohols: classify each OH group
Alcohols: production from alkenes and haloalkanes
Alcohols: reduction of carbonyl compounds and acids
Alcohols: ester hydrolysis
Alcohols: combustion and reaction with sodium
Alcohols: replacement of OH by halogen
Alcohols: oxidation products
Alcohols: use the dichromate observation
Alcohols: choose distillation or reflux
Alcohols: dehydration and esterification
Alcohols: the tri-iodomethane test
Alcohols: ethanol acidity compared with water
Chapter Summary
1
Hydroxy compounds: chapter summary
18
Carbonyl Compounds
Carbonyl Compounds
10
Carbonyl compounds: aldehyde or ketone
Carbonyl compounds: production by oxidation
Carbonyl compounds: reduction to alcohols
Carbonyl compounds: oxidation distinguishes the aldehyde
Carbonyl compounds: the 2,4-DNPH test
Carbonyl compounds: Tollens and Fehling tests
Carbonyl compounds: addition of HCN
Carbonyl compounds: HCN electron-pair movement
Carbonyl compounds: when addition creates a chiral carbon
Carbonyl compounds: methyl carbonyl and iodoform
Chapter Summary
1
Carbonyl compounds: chapter summary
19
Carboxylic Acids and Esters
Acids and Esters
7
Carboxylic acids: the group and its ion
Carboxylic acids: production by oxidation
Carboxylic acids: hydrolysis of nitriles
Carboxylic acids: metal, alkali and carbonate
Carboxylic acids: reduction to primary alcohol
Esters: formation and naming
Esters: acid and alkaline hydrolysis
Chapter Summary
1
Carboxylic acids and esters: chapter summary
20
Nitrogen Compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
5
Nitrogen compounds: amine or nitrile
Nitrogen compounds: make an amine
Nitrogen compounds: nitrile chain extension
Nitrogen compounds: hydroxynitrile production
Nitrogen compounds: nitrile hydrolysis
Chapter Summary
1
Nitrogen compounds: chapter summary
21
Polymerisation
Addition Polymers
5
Polymerisation: many monomers make one chain
Polymerisation: polyethene and PVC
Polymerisation: work out a new repeat unit
Polymerisation: identify the monomer
Polymerisation: why disposal is difficult
Chapter Summary
1
Polymerisation: chapter summary
22
Organic Synthesis
Synthetic Routes
5
Organic synthesis: several functional groups
Organic synthesis: keep the carbon count
Organic synthesis: add one carbon
Organic synthesis: choose the last step first
Organic synthesis: analyse every arrow
Chapter Summary
1
Organic synthesis: chapter summary
23
Analytical Techniques
Mass Spectrometry
6
Mass spectra: read mass and abundance
Mass spectra: calculate relative atomic mass
Mass spectra: identify the molecular ion
Mass spectra: identify simple fragments
Mass spectra: count carbon using M+1
Mass spectra: recognise chlorine and bromine
Infrared Spectroscopy
3
IR spectra: read axes and supplied ranges
IR spectra: compare alcohol, acid and ester
IR spectra: N–H, amide and C=C bands
Chapter Summary
1
Analytical techniques: chapter summary
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